Brave New World

The year 2025 saw several disruptive and emerging technologies advance from rhetoric, and experimentation, into ongoing expansion, to an accelerated phase of growth. Many of these developments were accompanied or driven by policies that are expected to influence tech futures worldwide. At the same time, as geopolitical flux increasingly defined the Zeitgeist, there emerged a rising sense of urgency about the need for digital sovereignty.

Taken together, artificial intelligence (AI), quantum computing, digital currencies, and nanotechnology represent a frontier where technology, power, and the political economy increasingly converge. AI is reshaping multiple domains of human activity. Quantum computing has the potential to disrupt existing advantages in encryption and transform information processing, thereby opening new avenues for scientific discovery. Digital currencies pose challenges to conventional monetary instruments and payment architectures, enabling new forms of statecraft and financial inclusion. Nanotechnology is driving advances in materials and electronics, with wide-ranging sectoral implications. The present article examines key megatrends associated with these technologies, and considers their possible trajectories in 2026.

Taken together, artificial intelligence (AI), quantum computing, digital currencies, and nanotechnology represent a frontier where technology, power, and the political economy increasingly converge.

1. Artificial Intelligence: Rapid and Fragmented Growth

As AI stakeholders prepare for the international AI Impact Summit to be hosted in India in February 2026, there has been a subtle shift in global conversations on AI. While earlier emphasis on AI safety, regulation, development, and governance will remain crucial, 2026 is expected to bring a growing focus on AI impacts and use cases. Indeed, AI applications and their impact could contribute USD 15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030.1

The United States (US) and China are expected to remain dominant in the AI race, with their technology ecosystems exercising the greatest influence. Powerful competing chatbots released in 2025 partly illustrate this ongoing contest for supremacy. Deep-Seek-R1, launched in January with 671 billion parameters2 , highlights China’s emphasis on frugal innovation, while OpenAI’s GPT-5, launched in August, was introduced as a successful extension of the ChatGPT family of generative AI models.

AI governance is set to enter a defining yet fragmented phase. This is an area where the voice and position of the Global South are expected to gain greater prominence, building on seminal articulations of 2025, such as the BRICS Leaders’ Statement on the Global Governance of AI3 and India’s recently launched Governance Guidelines.4 The former emphasizes AI cooperation, sovereignty, and development rooted in rights and personal data safeguards; while the latter foregrounds trust, a people-first approach, responsible innovation, fairness and equity, transparency and accountability, and safety and sustainability. These points of focus differ markedly from those of the US AI Action Plan of 2025 which adopts a pro-innovation deregulatory stance designed to reinforce American leadership. 5 At the same time, the stringent risk-based regulation of the European Union AI Act, 6 which enters into force in August 2026, embodies a contrasting approach that some observers caution may constrain innovation.

These competing approaches underscore the importance of strengthening the global governance of AI in 2026. It will be essential to establish a shared baseline of values, although pathways to implementation may differ. In this regard, the work of the United Nations’ Global Dialogue on AI Governance,7 a new multilateral platform, is likely to gain urgency, along with the consensus-building activities of multistakeholder alliances like the Global Partnership on AI (GPAI). The non-binding nature of most normative frameworks developed by these and similar platforms, however, is expected to remain a continuing limitation.

These competing approaches underscore the importance of strengthening the global governance of AI in 2026. It will be essential to establish a shared baseline of values, although pathways to implementation may differ.

The dual-use nature of AI is projected to become more salient, with the global ‘AI in military’ market expected to generate USD 16,300 million in 2026, having grown at a CAGR of 14.5 percent since 2019.8 Growth is driven primarily by rising demand for AI-integrated military equipment, cloud services, and an array of military applications such as AI-based cybersecurity tools and warfare platforms. These trends highlight the need for domain-specific agreements around ethics and governance, underlining the value of deliberative tracks like the UNIDIR-led Roundtable for AI, Security and Ethics (RAISE) and the Global Summit on Responsible AI in the Military Domain (REAIM).

The dual-use nature of AI is projected to become more salient, with the global ‘AI in military’ market expected to generate USD 16,300 million in 2026, having grown at a CAGR of 14.5 percent since 2019.

As 2026 advances, countries are expected to strengthen national AI capabilities 9 as competition between the United States (US) and China intensifies. The need to achieve greater alignment and harmonization of AI policies at the global level is likely to grow stronger. Two particular risks are expected to escalate further. The first is the exponential spread of AI-generated disinformation, including deepfake- induced frauds, which could constitute a form of “mainstream cybercrime by 2026”. 10 The second is the alarming growth of AI systems’ energy foot prints, 11 which may eventually necessitate a transition to more sustainable and energy-efficient solutions.

Two particular risks are expected to escalate further. The first is the exponential spread of AI-generated disinformation, including deepfake-induced frauds, which could constitute a form of “mainstream cybercrime by 2026”. The second is the alarming growth of AI systems’ energy footprints, which may eventually necessitate a transition to more sustainable and energy-efficient solutions.

2. Quantum Computing: Toward Fault Tolerance and Error Correction

In 2024 and 2025, quantum computing shifted focus from increasing qubit counts 12 to fault tolerance and error correction. 13 The broad push for applications of quantum computing rather than headline qubit numbers will continue through 2026 and may ultimately mark the turning point towards fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC). In the near term, hybrid classical–quantum approaches are likely to deliver near-term benefits in areas such as quantum chemistry and related optimization problems. 14

The year 2026 is expected to witness growing investor confidence in the field, 15 spurred by the declaration of 2025 as the “International Year of Quantum Science and Technology”; a host of technical advancements; greater participation from startups; and public investments of over USD 10 billion in the first quarter of 2025 alone, with Japan, the US, and Spain being the major contributors. 16

The year 2026 is expected to witness growing investor confidence in the field.

The commercial availability of quantum computers is continuing to grow, with 2026 expected to witness a major push towards commercial quantum computing applications. The US has established foundational capacities in this domain; 17 China introduced a superconducting quantum computer for commercial use in 2025; 18 and India introduced its first full-stack quantum computing system in April 2025, 19 with the startup behind the system subsequently unveiling its 64-qubit Kaveri quantum processor, scheduled for commercial release and use in 2026. 20

The intricacies involved in the global quantum supply chain have emerged as major impediments for domestic manufacturing and international collaboration. For instance, India’s National Quantum Mission mapped the global and domestic quantum landscape and flagged challenges such as low domestic investment and inadequate manufacturing and testing facilities. 21 These and related bottlenecks are expected to persist across the Global South in 2026. The hardware and rare minerals needed for quantum computing are difficult to secure, especially for Southern states, while increasingly stringent export controls by the US and China limit quantum development in other regions. 22 Although some emerging economies, such as India, possess relatively strong talent pools for software and algorithm design, the growing impulse towards building local manufacturing capabilities is likely to drive major investments and collaborative arrangements across the South as a bloc to avoid deepening technological dependence. 23

The dual-use nature of quantum computing, particularly in terms of its encryption-breaking capabilities, is gradually leading to its increasing importance in national security considerations. For instance, India published a considered assessment of the national security implications of quantum technology, including recommendations on transitioning to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) and establishing bilateral partnerships. 24

The hardware and rare minerals needed for quantum computing are difficult to secure, especially for Southern states, while increasingly stringent export controls by the US and China limit quantum development in other regions.

Therefore, progress in quantum computing in 2026 is expected to be accompanied by a stronger global focus on PQC migration 25 given the threat that more advanced error correction and fault-tolerant machines pose to current encryption schemes. Furthermore, limited or noisy quantum computing systems may also witness increasing applications in specialized military tasks such as supply chain and logistics optimization, battle simulations, and mission planning. 26

The growing impulse towards building local manufacturing capabilities is likely to drive major investments and collaborative arrangements across the South as a bloc to avoid deepening technological dependence.

3. Digital Currencies: From Ideas to Implementation

2025 marked the year digital currency frameworks transitioned from white papers to implementation, a transition that has gained substantial momentum. Major jurisdictions codified approaches: Hong Kong formalized its stablecoin regime, 27 the US enacted the long-debated GENIUS Act, 28 and regional pay ment rail experiments gained traction. Central banks are also moving beyond pilots. For example, the Re serve Bank of India expanded its retail Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) sandbox 29 to large private banks. It launched deposit tokenization pilots, integrating digital rupee trials with mainstream banking operations, a shift positioned to drive key transformations in the foreseeable future.

The global digital currency ecosystem in 2025 was characterized by two countervailing forces: tightening state control and regional financial integration. This dynamic is anticipated to endure in 2026 and the years that follow. Several developed economies institutionalized digital asset oversight, 30 embedding stablecoins into existing regulatory frameworks to protect consumers and prevent systemic shocks. Certain emerging markets, on the other hand, leveraged CBDCs and regional payment networks to reduce remittance costs and strengthen monetary sovereignty Across Africa, initiatives such as COMESA’s Digital Retail Payments Platform 31 are enabling cross-border settlement in local currencies, creating a template for South–South digital trade.

The global digital currency ecosystem in 2025 was characterized by two countervailing forces: tightening state control and regional financial integration. This dynamic is anticipated to endure in 2026 and the years that follow.

Transatlantic policy choices are expected to play a central role in influencing the global trajectory of digital currencies. The US and Europe have taken noticeably different positions on CBDC development. In the US, policymakers 32 have shown greater support for regulated stablecoins while expressing caution that a retail CBDC might disrupt private-sector innovation and the existing financial system. In March 2025, the US government announced 33 plans for establishing a Strategic Bitcoin Reserve and a “Digital Asset Stockpile” to hold cryptocurrencies seized in criminal cases. In contrast, European authorities 34 frame the Digital Euro as essential for safeguarding monetary sovereignty, improving payments efficiency, and ensuring continued public access to central-bank money in an increasingly digital economy.

The potential dividends of a well-calibrated digital currency ecosystem are becoming evident. Properly designed CBDCs and regulated stablecoins have the potential to extend 35 financial inclusion through low-cost digital wallets, offline transaction capabilities, and instant settlement. These tools can streamline domestic payments, lower remittance costs that are vital for many developing economies, and offer countries with limited correspondent banking links regional payment rails to settle cross-border 36 trade in local currencies, reinforcing monetary sovereignty. Structural and operational risks, however, warrant careful consideration. Concerns 37 include privacy and cybersecurity vulnerabilities, dependence on a narrow set of technology providers, and overly stringent tax 38 and KYC regimes that may drive fintech talent, innovation, and capital offshore.

From 2026 onward, four structural shifts are expected to shape the digital currency space. First, sovereign digital payments are likely to become more embedded in everyday retail transactions and government subsidy programmes, normalizing Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) in routine economic activity across several geographies. Second, tokenization and programmable money are projected to expand across financial instruments, enhancing efficiency, liquidity, and transparency. Third, regional payment rails in Global South blocs are likely to reduce frictions in remittances and cross-border trade, strengthening monetary sovereignty. Finally, tensions between privacy advocates and regulatory and security imperatives are expected to incentivize advances in cryptographic privacy solutions and legal refinements.

4. Nanotechnology: Advancements in Spintronics and Next-Gen Electronics

2025 witnessed the emergence of a spectrum of early-phase nanotechnology projects globally, ranging from nanofiltration plants for water security, 39 to new methods for constructing biopolymer composite films to reduce reliance on non-biodegradable single-use packaging, 40 and pesticides using nanomaterial carriers for more effective delivery. 41 Collectively, these and other initiatives illustrate the gradual integration of nanotechnology into diverse sectors across countries. Within the field as a whole, innovations in spin electronics or spintronics have been identified as a strategic area of research by various countries. 42

The AI boom of recent years appears to be slowing marginally, and investor confidence in AI-native companies such as OpenAI has exhibited signs of decline. This market shift is primarily driven by the sentiment that LLM architectures underpinning AI tools such as ChatGPT may be approaching their current limits.

The AI boom of recent years appears to be slowing marginally, and investor confidence in AI-native companies such as OpenAI has exhibited signs of decline. This market shift is primarily driven by the sentiment that LLM architectures underpinning AI tools such as ChatGPT may be approaching their current limits. The high-energy cost of training and deploying frontier models has further strained national infrastructures and power grids. In this landscape, spintronics innovations present a potential pathway, promising higher energy efficiency, heat tolerance, and faster data processing for demanding tasks such as AI development. Given the possibility, however distant, of an AI winter, countries have begun investing in the next generation of advanced materials to stay ahead of the technological curve.

The high-energy cost of training and deploying frontier models has further strained national infrastructures and power grids. In this landscape, spintronics innovations present a potential pathway, promising higher energy efficiency, heat tolerance, and faster data processing for demanding tasks such as AI development.

Nations across the globe have identified nanotechnology and specifically spintronics as an enabling platform that can deliver cheaper and more efficient technologies. The significance of spintronics is high lighted in strategies such as the US National Strategy on Microelectronics Research (2025), 43 the Czech Republic National Semiconductor Strategy anchored in the EU Chips Act, 44 the France 2030 — SPIN-V (spintronics innovation) program, 45 Saudi Arabia’s ‘Strategic Priorities for the Nanotechnology Program’, 46 and, in India, NITI Aayog’s 2025 primer on the future of two-dimensional (2D) materials which notes the confluence of innovations in 2D materials and spintronic devices as driving the next phase of digital innovation. 47

Strategic interest in the technology has been accompanied by scientific advancements that have brought spintronic-enabled commercial devices closer to market deployment. 2026 is expected to witness advanced prototypes of spintronic neural networks that can process data much more efficiently than GPU-based systems. Another advancement may occur in the electric vehicle (EV) sector. EVs require electronics that can withstand high temperatures and 2026 may prove to be a breakthrough year for spintronics-based Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM) capable of addressing this challenge. 48

Partly due to the ever-increasing energy cost of frontier AI development, growing government interest in nanotechnology and subfields like spintronics is expected to boost investments in materials research in 2026.

The AI race already has incumbents. To move ahead, major economic powers outside the US and China are likely to expand budgets for advanced materials research driven by the need for future-readiness. 2026 may be a momentous year in the EU for nanomaterial regulation. EU Regulation 2024/858 that amends the EU Cosmetics Regulation by banning prohibited nanomaterials in commercial products has a critical deadline in 2026. 49 A potential regulatory milestone could be reached in 2026 with the European Commission’s ‘Safe and Sustainable by Design’ framework. 50 The framework, which is expected to introduce new data submission requirements for companies producing or importing nano materials, could mark incremental progress toward aligning innovation with oversight, potentially ushering in an era in which safe-by-design nanomaterials become the default.

In 2025, developments in AI, quantum computing, digital currencies, and nanotech revealed both the speed of technological change, and its unevenness across geographies. The road ahead is likely to be characterized less by tech breakthroughs themselves than by the choices societies make about innovation, growth, guardrails, and control.

Partly due to the ever-increasing energy cost of frontier AI development, growing government interest in nanotechnology and subfields like spintronics is expected to boost investments in materials research in 2026.

A common strand that has begun to run through many state interventions is a desire for digital sovereignty: every country’s quest for control over its digital infrastructure, data, and citizen-facing technologies in the interest of its people.

The Road Ahead

The era of AI diffusion is expected to intensify in 2026, with a sharp rise in AI’s civilian and military uses. But competition over AI development will be matched in importance by the need to find convergences between governance models and principles. The deeply fractured landscape of AI governance is likely to render consensus-building initiatives more important than ever. The field of quantum computing is expected to benefit from greater investment, and see a shift: from pursuing increased qubit counts towards finding a wider range of practical applications, and making quantum computers commercially available. 2026 is also expected to witness the use of digital currencies becoming more entrenched in certain regions, and facilitate potentially smoother remittance transfers and cross-border trade across pockets of the Global South. Finally, nanotechnology will begin to play a decisive role in shaping the future of materials, with specific nanotechnologies such as spintronics emerging as central to innovation and in vestment.

Endnotes

1 PwC, “Sizing the Prize: PwC’s Global AI Study – Exploiting the AI Revolution,” 2017, https://www.pwc.ch/en/publications/2017/pwc_global_ai_study_2017_en.pdf

2 Mayada Khatib, “DeepSeek R1: A Short Summary,” Medium, January 25, 2025, https://medium.com/@mayadakhatib/deepseek-r1-a-short-summary-73b6b8ced9cf

3 “BRICS Signs AI Governance Declaration: Shaping Global AI Standards through Multilateral Cooperation,” Nemko Digital, August 6, 2025, https://digital.nemko.com/news/brics-ai-governance-declaration-2025

4 India AI Governance Guidelines: Enabling Safe and Trusted AI Innovation, Ministry of Electronics and IT, Government of India, 2025, https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2025/nov/doc2025115685601.pdf

5 Winning the Race: America’s AI Action Plan, The White House, July 2025, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Americas-AI-Action-Plan.pdf

6 “EU AI Act: First Regulation on Artificial Intelligence,” European Parliament, June 8, 2023, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20230601STO93804/eu-ai-act-first-regulation-on-artificial-intelligence

7 “Global Dialogue on Artificial Intelligence,” United Nations, https://www.un.org/global-dialogue-ai-governance/en

8 “Artificial Intelligence in Military Systems Will Grow 14.5% through 2026,” Military Embedded Systems, June 27, 2019, https://militaryembedded.com/ai/deep-learning/artificial-intelligence-in-military-market-will-grow-14-5-cagr-through-2026

9 “Top 10 AI Trends to Watch in 2026,” United States Artificial Intelligence Institute, October 1, 2025, https://www.usaii.org/ai-insights/top-10-ai-trends-to-watch-in-2026

10 Roman Rafiq, “Preparing for the Next Wave of Deepfake Fraud in 2026,” The Economic Times, December 4, 2025, https://ciso.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/cybercrime-fraud/preparing-for-the-next-wave-of-deepfake-fraud-in-2026/125757320

11 “AI Is Set to Drive Surging Electricity Demand from Data Centres While Offering the Potential to Transform how the Energy Sector Works,” International Energy Agency,” April 10, 2025, https://www.iea.org/news/ai-is-set-to-drive-surging-electricity-demand-from-data-centres-while-offering-the-potential-to-transform-how-the-energy-sector-works

12 A qubit, or quantum bit, is the basic unit of information used to encode data in quantum computing.

13 Henning Soller, Martina Gschwendtner, Sara Shabani, and Waldemar Svejstrup, “The Year of Quantum: From Concept to Reality in 2025,” McKinsey & Company, June 23, 2025, https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/tech-and-ai/our-insights/the-year-of-quantum-from-concept-to-reality-in-2025

14 Kimm Fesenmaier, “New Hybrid Quantum–Classical Computing Approach Used to Study Chemical Systems,” California Institute of Technology, June 25, 2025, https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/new-hybrid-quantumclassical-computing-approach-used-to-study-chemical-systems

15 “2025 International Year of Quantum Science and Technology,” UNESCO, https://quantum2025.org/

16 Soller et al, “The Year of Quantum: From Concept to Reality In 2025”

17 “Quantum Breakthroughs: NIST & SQMS Lead the Way,” National Institute Of Standards And Technology, April 4, 2025, https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2025/04/quantum-breakthroughs-nist-sqms-lead-way

18 Matt Swayne, “China Opens Its Superconducting Quantum Computer for Commercial Use,” The Quantum Insider, October 14, 2025, https://thequantuminsider.com/2025/10/14/china-opens-its-superconducting-quantum-computer-for-commercial-use/

19 “Startup Selected under NQM Launches One of India’s Most Powerful Quantum Computers,” Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, April 15, 2025, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2121845&reg=3&lang=2

20 “Startups Supported by Pune IISER’s I-Hub Unveil New Developments in Quantum Technologies,” The Indian Express, November 12, 2025, https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/pune-iiser-i-hub-new-development-quantum-technologies-10361354/

21 “India’s International Technology Engagement Strategy for Quantum Science, Technology and Innovation,” Office of the Principal Scientific Advisor, Government of India, April 14, 2025, https://psa.gov.in/CMS/web/sites/default/files/publication/ITES_QWEBSITE1.pdf

22 “Department of Commerce Implements Controls on Quantum Computing and Other Advanced Technologies Alongside International Partners,” Bureau of Industry and Security, US Department of Commerce, September 5, 2024, https://www.bis.gov/press-release/department-commerce-implements-controls-quantum-computing-other-advanced-technologies-alongside

23 Beth Stackpole, “Building a Quantum Workforce,” MIT Sloan School of Management, September 15, 2025, https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/building-a-quantum-workforce

24 “Quantum Computing: National Security Implications and Strategic Preparedness,” NITI Aayog, Government of India, March, 2025, https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2025-03/Future-Front-Quarterly-Frontier-Tech-Insights-March-2025.pdf

25 Countries like the United Kingdom and Canada have already issued PQC migration roadmaps in 2025.

26 Michal Krelina, “An Introduction to Military Quantum Technology for Policymakers,” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, March, 2025, https://www.sipri.org/publications/2025/sipri-background-papers/introduction-military-quantum-technology-policymakers

27 Hong Kong Monetary Authority, “Stablecoin Issuers and Arrangements,” HKMA, 2025, https://www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/key-functions/international-financial-centre/stablecoin-issuers/

28 The White House, “Fact Sheet: President Donald J. Trump Signs GENIUS Act into Law,” July 2025, https://www.whitehouse.gov/fact-sheets/2025/07/fact-sheet-president-donald-j-trump-signs-genius-act-into-law/

29 Reuters, “India’s Central Bank Launches Digital Currency Retail Sandbox,” 8 October 2025, https://www.reuters.com/world/india/indias-central-bank-launches-digital-currency-retail-sandbox-2025-10-08/

30 State Street, “Digital Digest March 2025: Digital Assets & AI Regulation,” 2025, https://www.statestreet.com/in/en/insights/digital-digest-march-2025-digital-assets-ai-regulation

31 COMESA, “COMESA Launches Digital Retail Payments Platform,” 2025, https://www.comesa.int/104403-2/

32 Atlantic Council, “Central-Bank Digital Currencies versus Stablecoins: Divergent EU and US Perspectives,” Econographics blog, 2025, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/econographics/central-bank-digital-currencies-versus-stablecoins-divergent-eu-and-us-perspectives

33 The White House, “Establishment of the Strategic Bitcoin Reserve and United States Digital Asset Stockpile,” March 2025, https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/establishment-of-the-strategic-bitcoin-reserve-and-united-states-digital-asset-stockpile/

34 European Central Bank, “ECB Press Release — Digital Euro Project Update,” March 2025, https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/key/date/2025/html/ecb.sp250320_1~41c9459722.en.html

35 United Nations Development Programme, “Driving Financial Inclusion through CBDCs,” UNDP Report, June 2025,

https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2025-06/undp-driving-financial-inclusion-through-cbdcs.pdf

36 World Bank / International Finance Division, “Central Bank Digital Currencies for Cross-Border Payments: A Review of Current Experiments and Ideas,” World Bank Policy Paper, 2025, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/369001638871862939/pdf/Central-Bank-Digital-Currencies-for-Cross-border-Payments-A-Review-of-Current-Experiments-and-Ideas.pdf

37 Bank for International Settlements, “Cyber Risks in a World of Digital Money,” BIS Report, 2025, https://www.bis.org/publ/othp81.pdf

38 Yibin Mu and Angela Mu, “CBDC: Concepts, Benefits, Risks, Design, and Implications,” SSRN Working Paper, 1 October 2022, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4234876

39 “Egypt’s ORASCOM Says EPC Works Underway at Seawater Treatment Plant in Abu Dhabi,” Zawya, September 1, 2025, https://www.zawya.com/en/projects/utilities/egypts-orascom-epc-works-underway-at-seawater-treatment-plant-in-abu-dhabi-qrmbue1m

40 Xuanjun Hun, Chao Lu, Howyn Tang, Hossein Pouri, Etienne Joulin and Jin Zhang, “Active Food Packaging Made of Biopolymer-Based Composites,” Materials, 16 (1), 2023, https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/1/279

41 Ravinder Kumar, Naresh Kumar et al., “Advances in Biopolymeric Nanopesticides: A New Eco-Friendly/Eco-Protective Perspective in Precision Agriculture,” Nanomaterials, 12 (22), 2022, https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4991/12/22/3964

42 Spintronics is a field of electronics that uses an electronics spin and magnetic moment, in addition to electric charge, for storing, processing and transmitting information in solid state devices.

43 The White House, “National Strategy for Microelectronics Research,” April 2025, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Amended-National-Strategy-on-Microelectronics-Research.pdf

44 Office of the Government of the Czech Republic, “National Semiconductor Strategy,” 2024, https://www.dataplan.info/img_upload/7bdb1584e3b8a53d337518d988763f8d/national-semiconductor-strategy-cz.pdf

45 French National Centre for Scientific Research. Https://www.cnrs.fr/sites/default/files/press_info/2024-01/CP%20SPIN-V%20EN.pdf, 2024

46 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Economy and Planning, Strategic Priorities for Nanotechnology Program (KSA:Ministry of Health), https://npst.ksu.edu.sa/sites/npst.ksu.edu.sa/files/imce_images/nano.pdf

47 NITI Aayog, “Introduction to 2D Materials,” NITI Frontier Tech Hub, September 2025, https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2025-09/FTH-Quaterly-Insight-Sep-2025.pdf

48 Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM) is a high-speed, non-volatile memory technology that stores data using magnetic states instead of electric charges, retaining information even when power is lost.

49 Alejandra Serrano Romero, “Cosmetic Products Regulation 2026: How to Adapt Packaging and Labelling,” MarCo-Pack, https://marcopack.com/en/cosmetic-products-regulation-2026-how-to-adapt-packaging-and-labeling/#:~:text=Restrictions%20on%20nanomaterials%3A%20For%20example,and%201%20November%202025%20for

50 “Safe and sustainable by design,” European Commission, https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/industrial-research-and-innovation/chemicals-and-advanced-materials/safe-and-sustainable-design_en